Understanding Urbanisation, Smart Cities and Migration for UPSC Exam 26

Understanding Urbanisation, Smart Cities and Migration for UPSC Exam 26

I. URBANISATION

1. Concept

Urbanisation refers to the increase in the proportion of population residing in urban areas due to:

• Natural increase (birth > death)
• Migration from rural to urban areas
• Reclassification of rural areas as urban

It is both a demographic and spatial transformation.

2. Urbanisation in India: Current Trends

• As per Census 2011: Urban population = 31.1%
• Estimates by UN (2023): ~36% population urban
• By 2035 → Projected 43% (UN World Urbanization Prospects)

India is experiencing “messy and hidden” urbanization, meaning:

• Urban population is undercounted
• Peri-urban sprawls grow without formal planning
• Census definitions restrict recognition of urban settlements

3. Drivers of Urbanisation

(a) Push Factors (from rural areas)

• Agrarian distress (low incomes, crop failures)
• Lack of employment opportunities
• Poverty & indebtedness
• Decline in traditional village industries

(b) Pull Factors (towards cities)

• Industrial & service sector jobs
• Education & healthcare
• Social mobility
• Better infrastructure & lifestyle aspirations

4. Impacts of Urbanisation

Positive Impacts

• Higher GDP contribution (India’s cities contribute >60% of GDP with <40% population)
• Innovation & human capital development
• Improved access to services (health, education, markets)
• Inclusion of women in workforce (BPO, retail, healthcare)

Negative Impacts

• Urban sprawl: Gurgaon, Pune, Bengaluru expanding into peri-urban zones
• Informal settlements & slums: Dharavi (Mumbai), Indira Camp (Delhi)
• Infrastructure stress: traffic congestion, water scarcity, waste
• Environmental degradation: heat islands, air & water pollution
• Urban poverty & inequality

5. Urban Challenges

• Slums housing ~65 million (Census 2011)
• Air pollution (Delhi, Kanpur, Ghaziabad)
• Waste management (India generates >160,000 TPD solid waste)
• Water scarcity & flooding (e.g., Bengaluru 2022 floods)
• Inadequate public transport
• Governance challenges due to multiple parastatal agencies (Development Authorities, Cantonment Boards, ULBs)

6. Government Initiatives for Urbanisation

• Smart Cities Mission (2015)
• AMRUT (2015)
• Swachh Bharat Mission – Urban
• PMAY-Urban (Housing for All)
• HRIDAY (heritage development)
• Metro Rail Expansion
• National Urban Digital Mission (2021)

7. Urban Governance Issues

Urban governance in India suffers due to:

• Weak municipal finances
• Dependence on state governments
• Fragmented institutional structure
• Delay in implementation of 74th Constitutional Amendment Act (CAA, 1992)

8. Way Forward (UPSC Answer Points)

• Empower ULBs as per 74th CAA (Functions, Finances, Functionaries)
• Data-driven governance (GIS, AI, Digital Twins)
• Sustainable mobility (public transport, NMT)
• Affordable housing & rental reforms
• Climate-resilient infrastructure
• Satellite towns & multi-nodal urban development

II. SMART CITIES

1. Concept

A Smart City uses technology, data and participatory governance to improve:

• Infrastructure
• Quality of life
• Economic sustainability
• Environmental sustainability

Smart cities = “Liveable + Inclusive + Competitive + Sustainable”

2. Smart Cities Mission (India)

Launched: 2015
Coverage: 100 smart cities
Funding model: ₹500 crore (Centre) + matching by State/ULB

Key Components

• Smart mobility (ITS, integrated transport)
• Smart governance (digital services)
• Smart environment (waste, pollution control)
• Smart energy (LED, solar rooftop)
• Smart water (24×7 supply, SCADA monitoring)
• Urban renewal & retrofitting

3. Implementation Models

• Area-based development (ABD) → retrofitting, redevelopment
• Pan-city solutions → IT-based interventions citywide

Example:

• Indore → Smart waste management + GPS tracking + segregation
• Surat → Flood early warning system
• Bhubaneswar → Intelligent traffic system
• Pune → Command & control center

4. Achievements

• Universal LED street lighting in many cities
• Integrated Command & Control Centers (ICCCs) in 100 cities
• Waste collection digitized (e.g., Indore)
• Public Wi-Fi zones & smart kiosks
• Renovation of public spaces
• Improvement in urban safety (CCTV network)

5. Criticisms & Challenges

• Uneven implementation
• Focus only on selected zones (ABD), neglecting rest
• Financing gaps & PPP challenges
• Potential exclusion of marginalized groups
• Lack of coordination between ULBs and parastatals

6. Global Comparison

• Singapore: integrated mobility & e-governance
• Barcelona: smart grids & IoT sensors
• Copenhagen: climate-resilient urban design

III. MIGRATION

Migration is a major driver of urban growth.

1. Concept

Migration is movement of people from one place to another for:

• Employment
• Education
• Marriage
• Distress

2. Types of Migration

(a) Based on Location

• Rural → Urban (dominant in India)
• Urban → Urban (professional mobility)
• Rural → Rural (agricultural labor)
• Urban → Rural (reverse migration during COVID-19)

(b) Based on Duration

• Permanent
• Semi-permanent
• Seasonal / Circular

In India, seasonal migration is high among:

• Construction workers
• Brick kiln workers
• Agricultural labor
• Domestic workers

3. Migration Data (India Context)

As per Census 2011:

• Total migrants = ~45 crore (37% population)
• Rural to Urban = >20% of migrants
• Marriage is largest driver (females)
• Work/Employment is major driver (males)

4. Causes of Migration

Push Factors

• Low agricultural productivity
• Unemployment
• Natural disasters (droughts, floods)
• Social conflicts

Pull Factors

• Higher wages
• Educational institutions
• Better healthcare
• Social networks

5. Impacts of Migration

Positive Impacts

• Remittances support rural households
• Human capital development
• Reduction in disguised unemployment
• Expands labor force in urban industries

Negative Impacts

• Urban slums (e.g., Dharavi)
• Pressure on infrastructure (water, housing, transport)
• Informal labor exploitation
• Social fragmentation

6. COVID-19 and Reverse Migration

COVID-19 highlighted vulnerabilities:

• Lack of social security
• No portability of ration/benefits
• Insecure informal employment

Government response:

• One Nation One Ration Card (ONORC)
• PM Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana
• Shramik Special Trains

7. Government Policies on Migration

• National Urban Livelihood Mission (NULM)
• Affordable Rental Housing Complexes (ARHC) under PMAY-U
• Building & Construction Workers Act
• Inter-State Migrant Workmen Act
• Code on Social Security (2020)
• Code on Occupational Safety (2020)

IV. INTEGRATED VIEW (Urbanization + Smart Cities + Migration)

These three themes are deeply connected:

However, cities often fail to integrate migrants:

• Lack of affordable housing
• Informal employment
• No identity or service portability

Therefore, inclusive urbanization requires:

• Skill mapping of migrants
• Social security portability
• Rental housing reforms
• Gender-sensitive planning
• Climate-resilient city design