
Revision Notes of History for All Competitive Exams 2025.Compiled from different websites to facilitate last minute preparation.
HISTORY SET-1
Pre Historic History
- The pre-historic period in human history can roughly be dated from 2,00,000 BC to about 3500 – 2500 BC.
- The first modern human beings, Homo Sapiens, arrived in the Indian Subcontinent between 2,00,000 BC and 40,000 BC.
- Primitive people lived mainly on hunting and gathering.
- The Stone Age is the age when pre-historic man began to use stone for utilitarian purposes.
- The stages in man’s progress from Nomadic to settled life include Primitive Food collecting (Palaeolithic), Advanced Food collecting (Mesolithic), Transition to incipient food-production (early Neolithic), settled village communities (advanced neolithic/Chalcolithic), and Urbanisation (Bronze age).
- The period before 10,000 BC belongs to the Palaeolithic Age.
- During the Palaeolithic Age, man was primarily a hunter and food gatherer.
- A broken skull specimen of Homo erectus, discovered in the middle of the Narmada valley in Hathnora, Madhya Pradesh in 1982, is considered the most ancient human remnant so far discovered in the Indian subcontinent, belonging to the Middle Pleistocene age.
- A tradition of Indian rock art dates back to 40 or 50,000 years ago.
- The Mesolithic period roughly ranges between 10,000 and 6000 B.C.
- Stone implements of minute size, called Microliths, were produced during the Mesolithic age.
- Domestication of animals and cultivation of wild varieties of crops occurred during the Mesolithic period.
- The famous Bhimbetka caves near Bhopal, known for their cave paintings, belong to the Mesolithic age.
- The Neolithic Age ranges between 6000 to 4000 BC.
- An important invention of the Neolithic Age was the wheel.
- The Neolithic Age was characterised by settled life, animal husbandry, and cultivation based on the use of stone.
- The culture of the neolithic-chalcolithic sites of the Deccan had independent ancestry.
- The Chalcolithic Age period ranges between 1800 BC to 1000 BC.
- Towards the end of the Neolithic period, metals like bronze and copper began to be used.
- Chalcolithic cultures extended from the Chotanagpur Plateau to the upper Gangetic basin.
- The Chalcolithic culture was followed by the Iron phase.
- Pre-Harappan phase is found at Kalibhangan in Rajasthan, Banawali in Hariyana, and Kot Diji in Sind in Pakistan.
- The Kayathan Culture (2000 to 1800 BC) is semi-contemporary to the Harappan culture.
Ancient History
- Wheat and barley were the first cereals grown by Indians.
- The name India was derived from the river name Sindhu, also known as Indus.
- India was originally considered part of a larger area called Jambu-dvipa.
- The Indus Valley Civilisation belongs to the Chalcolithic period, dated between 3000 BC and 1500 BC.
- The Indus Valley Civilisation is a Bronze Age civilisation or a proto Historic civilisation.
- Copper was probably the first metal to come into use.
- The Negroids or Negritos of Pre-historic India were the first human inhabitants, who were food gatherers.
- The Proto Australoids form the basic elements in the population of India.
- Main centers of Indus Valley Excavation include Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Lothal, Chanhudaro, Kalibangan, Ropar, and Banwali.
- Harappan people were the earliest in the world to grow cotton and rice.
- People cultivated rice at Lothal and Rangpur and barley at Banwali.
- Horses were unknown to the Harappan people.
- Indus people had trade contacts with Persian Gulf and Mesopotamia.
- The ancient name given to the Indus region by Sumerians was Meluha.
- Indus people used a gold-silver mixture called Electrum.
- Indus people used bronze and copper, but iron was unknown to them.
- Indus people were the first to use copper in India.
- Main features of the Indus Civilisation include the use of fire burned bricks, storied buildings with stairways and ventilators, separate bathroom and drainage systems, town planning, the Great Bath, and the granary.
- The Harappans were unaware of the horse and the caste system.
- Harappans used a system of weights and measures based on 16 and its multiples.
- The Indus valley people did not construct temples.
- The chief male deity of the Indus people was Pasupati Mahadeva (Proto Siva).
- Their chief female deity was the Mother Goddess.
- They also worshipped fire, pipal trees, and Unicorn.
- Harappan script was Pictographic in nature and has not been deciphered.
- Boustrophedan was the style of writing used by the Harappans.
- Vedic Age is the period of Aryans in India from 1500 – 600 BC.
- The Vedic Period is classified into Early Vedic Period (1500 B.C. – 1000 B.C.) and Later Vedic Period (1000 B.C. – 600 B.C.).
- The Aryans were semi-nomadic pastoral people who originally inhabited the area around the Caspian Sea in Central Asia.
- Atharva veda is a collection of spells and charms.
- Ayurveda is a part of Atharva Veda and deals with medicine.
- The saying, ‘‘War begins in the minds of men’’ is from Atharva Veda.
- The 10th Mandala of Rigveda contains the Purusha Sukta hymn which tells about the origin of the caste system.
- Upanishads are 108 in number and are philosophical works.
- Upanishads are known as the Jnanakantas of Vedas.
- The words ‘Sathyameva Jayate’ have been taken from ‘Mundaka Upanishad’.
- Brahdaranya Upanishad was the first to give the doctrine of Transmigration of Soul and Karma.
- Important tribal assemblies of the Rig Vedic period were Sabha, Samiti, Vidhata, and Gana.
- The term Aghanya has been used for cows in the Rig Vedic period to indicate its economic importance.
- The Vedic Literature consists of the Samhitas (Rig, Yajur, Sama, Atharva veda), Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads, Vedangas, Sutras, and Upavedas.
- The word ‘Veda’ is derived from the word ‘vid’ which means knowledge.
- The period assigned to the Later Vedic Phase is 1000 BC to 600 BC.
- Later Vedic people used a particular type of pottery called Painted Grey Ware (PGW).
- Later Vedic Aryans were familiar with the Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean.
- Rice became the staple diet of Indian people during the Later Vedic Period.
- Mention about the Varnashramadharma is found in the Jabla Upanishad.
- The Doctrine of Trimurti is found in the Maitrayani Upanishad.
- Purohita, Senani, and Vrajapati were important functionaries assisting the king in the Later Vedic Period.
- The officer enjoying authority over pastoral land was called Vrajapati.
- Aryans used iron for the first time in India.
- Horse, Iron, Sugarcane, Pulses etc., reached India with the coming of Aryans.
- The God who occupied the supreme position in the Later Vedic Period was Prajapati.
- Rudra was regarded as preserver and protector of the people.
- The most important functionary who assisted the Vedic king was Purohita.
- The ‘Sangam Age’ extends roughly between 300 B.C and 300 A.D.
- Vanchi was the capital of Cheras.
- The greatest of the Chera rulers was Senguttuvanchera, known as ‘Red Chera’.
- Nedumjeraladan is the first known Chera king.
- Magadha formed one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas (Great Countries) or regions in ancient India.
- In the 6th BC, North India witnessed the establishment of Kingdoms, oligarchies, chiefdoms, and the rise of towns.
- The Gangetic plain became the political centre.
- Gradually Mahajanapadas with the nature of modern states originated.
- The Buddhist Texts give the names of 16 Janapadas.
- The Vedic text described Anga and Magadha as impure lands.
- Kashi, Kossala, and Magadha were rival Kingdoms competing for control over the Gangetic plain.
- The battle for political supremacy among Kasi, Kosala, and Magadha and the Gana-Sangha of Vrijji resulted in Magadha being the victorious one.
- The first Buddhist Council at Rajagraha codified the teachings of the Buddha in Pali language called the Thripitakas (Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka, Abhidhama Pitaka).
- Ashtadhyayi by Panini (5th Century BC) is the earliest grammar book.
- Mahabhashya was written by Patanjali.
- Manusmriti was a law book composed between 200 BC and 200AD.
- Arthashastra by Kautilya deals with statecraft and is a major source of Mauryan administration.
- Indica by Megasthenes is a source of Mauryan society and administration.
- Buddhacharita by Aswaghosha is the earliest biography of Buddha.
- Dhanananda, known as Agrammes to the Greeks, was extremely unpopular due to his greed.
- The Nandas built the first empire in India and were the first of a number of non-Kshatriya ruling dynasties.
- A Little before 530 BC, Cyrus, the Achaeminid emperor of Persia, received tributes from tribes in Kamboja, Gandhara, and the trans-Indus area.
- Till 330 BC, the regions west of Indus belonged to the Greeks.
- In 518 BC, Darius I captured the Indus Valley and made it the 20th Satrapy.
- The outstanding result of the Persian attack was the Kharoshti script.
- In 336 BC, Alexander occupied the Macedonian Kingdom.
- By 327 BC, Alexander entered North West India.
- Alexander was born in 356 BC as the son of King Philip II of Macedonia.
- Epirus or Olympias was Alexander’s mother.
- Aristotle was Alexander’s teacher.
- In 326 BC, Alexander defeated Porus (Purushothama) in the Battle of Hydaspass on the banks of river Jhelum.
- Ambhi, the ruler of Taxila, invited Alexander to India.
- Alexander died of Malaria at the age of 33 in 323 BC while in Babylon.
- Alexander was known as Shehansha in Persia and Sikhandar-I-Azam in the Indo-Pak region.
- The last general of Alexander in India was Eudamas.
- Alexander’s first General in India was Selucus Nikator.
- Alexander’s invasion opened up free intercourse and strengthened commercial ties between India and the west.
- A new Indo-Greek style called Gandhara Art developed after Alexander’s invasion.
- Source materials for the study of the Mauryans include the Arthasasthra of Chanakya/Kaudilya/Vishnugupta and the Indica of Megasthenes.
- Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of the Mauryan Empire.
- Effects of the Persian Invasion include the introduction of the Aramic form of writing (which developed into Kharoshthi) and promotion of Indo-Iranian trade.
- The Mauryan Art was a mixture of Grecco Persian and Indian styles.
- Rock-cut architecture in India began during Ashoka’s reign.
- Brihadratha, the last Mauryan ruler, was killed by Pushyamitra Sunga who founded the Sunga Dynasty in 185 BC.
- Megasthenese mentions the existence of seven castes in India during the Mauryan period.
- Head of the Mauryan city administration was known as Nagaraka.
- Rakshi in Mauryan administration refers to the police who looked after people’s security.
- The dominant language of the Mauryan Court was Magadhi.
- Bhaga (King’s share, 1/6 of the produce), Bali (an additional Cess), Vishti (tax paid in labour), and Senabhagam (tax by army) were main Mauryan revenue sources.
- The Mauryan Empire was divided into provinces such as Taxila, Tossali, Kaussambi, and Ujjaini.
- The Mauryas introduced stone masonry on a large scale.
- Causes of the decline of the Mauryan Empire included the policy of Asoka, the scramble for power, continuous famine, the bureaucracy, and lack of authority.
- Ashoka summoned the third Buddhist Council at Pataliputra.
- The Mauryan Age produced the Ramayana and the Mahabharatha and promoted the six systems of Indian philosophy.
- The Mauryans helped to develop a systematised Chronology of India.
- Categories of Asoka’s inscriptions include Bhabru (Conversion to Buddhism), Barabar Hills (Enjoins toleration), Tarai Pillars (Respect to Buddhism), Minor Rock Edicts (Personal history of Asoka and summary of Dhamma), and 7 Pillar Rock Edicts (Appendix to Rock Edicts).
- The cult of Vasudeva or Krishna (Heracles in Greek) and Arjuna were worshiped during the Mauryan period.
- Religious tolerance was present in the Mauryan Empire.
- Post Mauryan dynasties included the Sunga, Kanvas, Chetas of Kalinga, Sathavahanas of Andhra, and foreign rulers like the Bactrain Greeks, Sakas, Parthians, and Kushans.
- The Sunga Dynasty was founded by Pushyamitra Sunga.
- Patanjali lived in Pushyamitra’s court and wrote Mahabhashya.
- In the Satavahana kingdom, districts were called ‘Ahara’, officers were ‘Amatyas’ and ‘Mahamatras’, and Provincial Governors were called ‘Senapati’.
- The official language of the Satavahanas was
- The first foreign invaders of India were the Greeks, also called Prakrit.Indo-Greeks or Bactrians.
- The most famous Indo-Greek ruler was Menander with his capital at Sakala (Modern Sialkot).
- Menander’s discussion with the Budhist Scholar Nagasena is described in the text ‘Milinda Panho’.
- The Indo-Greeks were the first to issue gold coins in India.
- The introduction of Hellenistic art features into India was a contribution of Indo-Greek rule.
- Indo-Greeks were the first to issue coins bearing the figure of kings.
- Demitrius, king of Bactria, invaded India about 190BC and is considered the Second Alexander.
- Indo-Greeks were the first to introduce military governorship in India.
- Ideas of astronomy and horoscope were inherited from the Indo-Greeks.
- The Parthians, also known as Pahalavas, were Iranian People.
- Gondopharnes was the greatest of the Parthian rulers.
- St. Thomas is said to have come to India for the propagation of Christianity during the period of Gondopharnes.
- Sakas were also known as…. (Source cut off, but indicates Sakas were a group).
- Kushans are also known as Yuch-chis or Tocharians.
- Kushans came to India from North Central Asia.
- The most famous Kushana ruler was Kanishka.
- Kanishka became the ruler in 78 AD and started the Saka Era.
- The Capital of Kanishka was Peshawar or Purushapura.
- Kanishka convened the fourth Buddhist council in Kashmir.
- Scholars like Parsva, Vasumitra, Ashvaghosha, Charaka, and Nagarjuna were courtiers of Kanishka.
- The Kushan school of art is also referred to as the Mathura school.
- Features of the Post-Mauryan period include the discovery of the Monsoon Route, the Silk Route, increase in trade volume, development of Guilds, popularity of Buddhism and Jainism, Bhakti cult, and rise of Gandhara, Mathura, and Amaravati Art.
- The Gupta Empire period is 320 – 540 AD.
- The Allahabad Pillar inscription, composed by Harisena, contains information about Samudragupta’s conquests.
- Allahabad Pillar inscription is also known as ‘Prayagaprasasti’.
- Samudra Gupta is also known as ‘Lichchavi Dauhitra’.
- Fa-Hein, the Chinese traveller, visited India during the period of Chandragupta- II.
- Chandragupta II adopted the title Vikramaditya after victory over the Sakakshatraps.
- ‘Nine gems’ or ‘Navratnas’ was a famous Scholastic Assembly in the court of Chandragupta II, including Kalidasa, Varahmihira, Dhanvantari, and Amarasimha.
- The period of the Gupta is compared to ‘Periclean Age of Greece’, ‘Augustan Age of Rome’, and ‘Elizabethan Age of England’.
- The period of the Guptas is considered the Golden Age in the history of India.
- The Kumaramatyas were the most important officers of the Gupta period.
- The royal seal of the Guptas bore the emblem of Garuda.
- Aryabhatta, who wrote Aryabhattiyam, belonged to the Gupta period and was the first to treat Mathematics as a separate subject and use the Decimal System.
- The period between the second quarter of the 6th Cent.AD and 7th Cent.AD was one of struggle for supremacy in the Post Gupta Period.
- Leading figures in the Post Gupta Period included the Later Guptas, the Muharis, Yasodharman of Mandasor, Sasanka of Gauda, Pushyabhuthis of Thaneswar, and Varmans of Kamarupa.
- The Hunas came to North India during the Post Gupta period.
- Sialkot was Mihirakula’s capital.
- The Hunas were finally defeated by Yashodharman, a king from Malwa.
- The Maitrakas of Valabhi were of Iranian origin and ruled Gujarat.
- Valabhi was the capital of the Maitrakas.
- Harsha came to power in 606 AD (Harsha Era).
- Harsha made Kannauj his new capital from Taneswar.
- Original name of Harsha was Siladitya.
- Chinese traveller Hieun Tsang visited India during Harsha’s reign.
- Harsha’s biography ‘Harsha Charita’ was written by his court poet Banabhatta.
- Banabhatta also wrote ‘Kadambari’.
- Pulikeshin-I founded a small kingdom with the Capital at Vatapipura (Modern Badami) in 535 AD.
- Pulakeshin-II was the most famous ruler of the Chalukya dynasty.
- The greatest achievement of Pulakeshin-II was defeating Harshavardhana.
- The Pallava king Narasimhavarman captured Vatapi and adopted the title ‘Vatapikonda’.
- The Gangas of Talakad ruled from the 2nd to 11th Century AD.
- Kolar was the early capital of the Gangas, later Talakad became the permanent capital.
- Durvinitha was the greatest Ganga king.
- Minor states ruling the Deccan included the Abhiras (Western Deccan), Ikshvakus (Andhra), and Pitribhaktas (Kalinga).
- Ajatasatru established the city of Pataliputra.
- Bimbisara founded the Magadhan Empire or Haryanka dynasty and was the first influential king of ancient India.
- Kharavela was the ruler of Kalinga in the 1st century AD, and the famous Hathigumbha inscription belonged to him.
- Karikala was a Chola ruler who founded the city of Puhar (Kaveripatnam) in the 1st century BC.
- Kautilya is also known as Vishnugupta or Chanakya and wrote Arthasasthra.
- Kalidas was a famous Sanskrit poet who wrote Raghuvamsa, Kumara Sambhavam, Abhijnana Shakuntalam, Vikramorvashiyam, Malavikagnimitram, Meghadootam, and Ritusamharam.
- Mihir Bhoja was a famous Prathihara ruler of the 9th century.
- Kalhana was a famous Kashmiri poet and historian who wrote Raja Tarangini.
- Menander came to India as a foreign aggressor in the 2nd Century BC.
- Nagarjuna, a famous Buddhist monk, propounded the philosophy known as Madhyamika.
- Makkali Gosala was the founder of the Ajivika sect.
- Shushrut was an expert in Ayurvedic medicine and plastic surgery.
- Panini was a Sanskrit scholar of Grammar who wrote Ashtadyayi.
- Varahamihira was a famous astronomer who wrote Brihat Samhita.
- Sankaracharya propagated Advaita Philosophy.
- The source of the Swastika symbol is the Indus Valley.
- The father of Indian archaeology is Alexander Cunningham.
- Meter scale has been discovered from Harappa.
- Sword was a weapon never used by the Indus people.
- The major industry in Chanhudaro was Bead making.
- The word ‘Sindhan’ used by the Indus people denoted Cotton.
- Evidence of fractional burial has been excavated from Harappa.
- The word ‘godhume’ used in the vedic period denoted Wheat.
- ‘Yava’ denoted Barley in the Vedic period.
- The term used to denote rice in the Vedic text was Vrihi.
- The Vedic term ‘sita’ denoted a Ploughed field.
- The Veda that mentions about the wheel is Rigveda.
- Vedic terms ‘Urvara’ or ‘kshetra’ denoted… (Source cut off).
- The first town in the Vedic period to use burnt bricks was Kausambi.
- First reference about lending money for interest is found in Satpatha Brahmana.
- The Upanishad that mentions about the police system is Brihadaranyaka Upanishads.
- Varuna was considered the God of Gods.
- The community considered untouchable by the Buddhists was the Chandalas.
- The language used by the Jains to spread their religion was Prakrit.
- Ananda is considered the St. John of Buddhism.
- Mara is considered the Devil by the Buddhists.
- Vima Kadphesus was the Yuchi ruler who introduced gold coins for the first time.
- The Nagarjunakonda Edict mentions about the relation between India and China.

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